ADVANCEMENT OF THE SCIENCE
airflow (4.69 mm). The hydrophobic fluorine atom in PVDF improved the electronega- tivity, and the hydrophilic oxygen atom in POEM enhanced the electrostatic attraction. The membrane had a nanofibrous diameter of 65.3 nm, similar to the mean free path of air molecules. Furthermore, the amphiphilic property of the prepared membrane eased air transportation by facilitating the movement of the molecules. Thus, this face mask could help decrease COVID-19 infections by filter- ing fine particulate matter. Impact of Interaction Other factors could directly or indirectly affect the transmission of COVID-19. Brandt et al. (2020) reported that cities with high-density populations in the U.S. recorded high infec- tion rates of COVID-19. For predominantly Black communities, the infection rate was also disproportionately higher. For these two populations, the increase in infection rates was attributed to high population density in households, in addition to social activities. Bontempi (2022) reported that human interaction increases the transmission of COVID-19. It was concluded that because of the close physical proximity common in commercial trades, this area of society should be considered to understand the transmission of the virus and its dynam- ics. Notably, countries with high commer- cial relations have a vital role in importing or exporting the virus. The impact of air pollution is considered incomplete with- out taking into account the economic and social relationships of a community. More- over, transportation necessary for commer- cial trade around the globe could be a way to track COVID-19. By understanding the movement of the virus, models could be de- signed to control the transmission and po- tentially prevent future pandemics. Effect of Weather Conditions Weather conditions are also a factor to con- sider. Ismail et al. (2022) studied the effect of meteorologic indicators (e.g., temperature, wind speed, air pressure, relative humidity) on air quality. They examined the influence of weather conditions on the linear and non- linear spread of COVID-19, including death rates in six areas of Saudi Arabia: Buraydah, Abha, Riyadh, Mecca, Jeddah, and Dammam. They used the Akaike information criterion
(AIC) to evaluate COVID-19 infection and death rates to select the best model. Results showed a nonlinear relationship between temperature and relative humidity with the number of daily infections. The effect of tem- perature on the number of daily infections and deaths increased between 23 °C and 34.5 °C, whereas cases decreased above or below that range. In addition, places with a relative humidity between 30% and 60% showed an increase in death rates. Air quality was also studied, but Ismail et al. (2022) found the influence of air pollu- tion on COVID-19 infection rates to be less than that of meteorological factors. They found the number of infections and deaths increased in polluted and deserted cities. They also found that sandstorms negatively affect air quality, leading to an increase in COVID-19 infection rates. Han et al. (2022) studied COVID-19 trans- mission and confirmed its link to meteoro- logical variables, air pollution, and socio- economic characteristics. From March 2020 to November 2020, they looked at monthly regional and temporal patterns in COVID-19 infection rates for newly confirmed cases in 188 countries and regions. They detected a linear relationship between meteorological factors and air pollution. The results showed that the number of infections increased from March 2020 to November 2020 and COV- ID-19 transmission was influenced by inter- actions between these factors. Climate vari- ables (e.g., temperature, rain, wind speed, air pressure) were shown to be inversely associ- ated with infection rates, whereas air pollut- ants (e.g., NO 2 , SO 2 , O 3 ) and socioeconomic characteristics were found to increase COV- ID-19 infections. Han et al. (2022) concluded that social distance and environmental disin- fection are effective ways to reduce transmis- sion of the virus and that reducing pollution can enhance people’s general ability to with- stand respiratory diseases. In another example of weather-related studies, Hidalgo-García & Arco-Díaz (2022) determined the effect of environmental pol- lution parameters such as PM 10 , O 3 , NO 2 , CO, and SO 2 derived from meteorological data from eight cities in Andalusia in southern Spain. These characteristics influenced the land surface temperature (LST) and surface urban heat island (SUHI). It was found that towns on the Mediterranean Sea were par-
ticularly suitable for these studies because they are experiencing climate change, high pollution rates, and large daily temperature changes. During the lockdown, scientists reported the average reduction in environ- mental contaminants for NO 2 (44.0%), PM 10 (38.3%), SO 2 (33.5%), and CO (26.5%). Moreover, LST decreased by an average of 4.6 °C (19.3%), while SUHI decreased by 1.02 °C (59.8%). These data show significant spatio- temporal differences between day and night, as well as between inland and coastal regions (Hidalgo-García & Arco-Díaz, 2022). Observations and Recommendations Based on our analysis of the literature, we recommend the following: 1. Air pollutants have a large impact on human health and the spread of COVID- 19, so it is important to decrease pollut- ant levels. 2. It is obligatory for governments to track pollutant levels and make policies to reduce pollutant concentrations and thereby, their effects. 3. Because of the direct relationship between pollutant levels and the spread of COVID- 19 with its associated mortality rates, more emergency healthcare professionals should be sent to locations that have greater air pollution. Governments and agencies need to strategically reallocate emergency and mobile healthcare units. 4. In addition to genetic and social factors, many factors (e.g., air pollution, com- mercial trade, lifestyle) contribute to virus transmission. 5. To avoid infection, people need to practice good personal hygiene and follow public health recommendations that govern- ments implement based on the epidemio- logical situation. Conclusion We reviewed published research that investi- gated the relationship between air pollution and COVID-19 infection and death rates. A direct relationship between air pollutant lev- els and COVID-19 infections was found. In both the short and long term, PM 2.5 and PM 10 could be the most harmful pollutants that influence human health. Now, approximately 5 years after the emergence of COVID-19, the virus is still circulating. Although many vac-
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Volume 87 • Number 7
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