NEHA December 2024 Journal of Environmental Health

The December 2024 issue of the Journal of Environmental Health (Volume 87, Number 5), published by the National Environmental Health Association.

JOURNAL OF Environmental Health Dedicated to the advancement of the environmental health professional Volume 87, No. 5 December 2024

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ABOUT THE COVER

Warmer Air Disrupts Downward Trend in Ozone Concentrations in North Central Texas, United States ......................................................................................... 8 International Perspectives: Solid Waste Management in the Republic of Benin: The Case of Five Municipalities in Grand Nokoué ....................................................................... 16 Guest Commentary: Beyond Slimy Biofilms: The Emergence of Dry Surface Biofilms as a Concern for Infection Transmission in Public Settings ........................................................... 20

Tropospheric ozone concentra- tions have trended downward in many U.S. cities since 2000. In Texas, however, concentrations and regulatory exceed- ances abruptly rose

in Dallas-Fort Worth after 2020. This month’s cover article, “Warmer Air Disrupts Downward Trend in Ozone Concentrations in North Cen- tral Texas, United States” explored this anomaly through the analysis of more than 20 years of data for ozone concentrations and exceedances, nitrogen oxide concentrations, and meteorolog- ical variables. The results suggest that warmer atmospheric conditions associated with global warming are also increasing ground-level ozone concentrations in the study area. See page 8. Cover images © iStockphoto: Art Wager

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Direct From AAS: Fostering Creativity and Innovation in Environmental Health ........................ 24

Direct From CDC/Environmental Health Services: New Website, Same Trusted Environmental Health Resources ................................................................................................. 28

Direct From U.S. EPA/ORD: Toward Better Decentralized Wastewater Treatment ....................... 32

Practitioner's Tool Kit: A Reintroduction to the Infrared Thermometer ........................................ 36

Spotlight on Emerging Professionals: A Journey Into Environmental Public Health ................... 40

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Spotlight on NEHA Resources: Body Art ................................................................................... 31

Environmental Health Calendar ...............................................................................................41

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President’s Message: A Message of Resiliency for the Holidays and Beyond ............................................. 6

Special Listing ........................................................................................................................... 42

NEHA News .............................................................................................................................. 44

NEHA Member Spotlight .......................................................................................................... 46

NEHA 2025 AEC....................................................................................................................... 47

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An open access journal published monthly (except bimonthly in January/ February and July/August) by the National Environmental Health Association (NEHA), 1400 S. Colorado Blvd., Ste. 325, Denver, CO 80222-3622. Phone: (303) 802-2200; Internet: www.neha.org. E-mail: jeh@neha.org. Volume 87, Number 5. Yearly print subscription rates: $160 (U.S.) and $200 (international). Single print copies: $15, if available. Claims must be filed within 30 days domestic, 90 days foreign, © Copyright 2024, NEHA (no refunds). Opinions and conclusions expressed in articles, columns, and other contributions are those of the authors only and do not reflect the policies or views of NEHA. NEHA and the Journal of Environmental Health are not liable or responsible for the accuracy of, or actions taken on the basis of, any information stated herein. NEHA and the Journal of Environmental Health reserve the right to reject any advertising copy. Advertisers and their agencies will assume liability for the content of all advertisements printed and also assume responsibility for any claims arising therefrom against the publisher. Advertising rates available at www.neha.org/jeh. The Journal of Environmental Health is indexed by Clarivate, EBSCO (Applied Science & Technology Index), Elsevier (Current Awareness in Biological Sciences), Gale Cengage, and ProQuest. The Journal of Environmental Health is archived by JSTOR (www.jstor.org/journal/ jenviheal). Full electronic issues from present to 2012 available at www.neha.org/jeh. All technical manuscripts submitted for publication are subject to peer review. Visit www.neha.org/jeh for submission guidelines and instructions for authors. To submit a manuscript, visit https://jeh.msubmit.net. Direct all questions to jeh@neha.org. Periodicals postage paid at Denver, Colorado, and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Journal of Environmental Health , 1400 S. Colorado Blvd., Ste. 325, Denver, CO 80222-3622.

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December 2024 • Journal of Environmental Health

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 PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE

A Message of Resiliency for the Holidays and Beyond

CDR Anna Khan, MA, REHS/RS

D ecember is marked with holidays, gatherings with friends and family, and the joy of sharing festive meals that strengthen bonds and memories. Food plays a central role in these connections, bringing people together around the table to enjoy traditional dishes and seasonal treats. It is crucial, however, that this festive food is not only delicious but also safe. By pri- oritizing food safety, we can fully embrace the spirit of togetherness and celebration without worrying about getting ourselves, friends, or family sick. Environmental health has traditionally focused on addressing biological contami- nants in food—such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites—that pose immediate and well- documented risks to human health. There is a growing recognition, however, that protecting people from heavy metals, including arsenic, is equally crucial yet often underemphasized. Heavy metals can accumulate in the envi- ronment and enter the food chain through contaminated soil and water, presenting sig- nificant long-term health risks such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and developmental issues. While e orts to mitigate biological risks have advanced, more comprehensive measures are needed to monitor, regulate, and reduce exposure to heavy metals. Enhanced testing protocols, stricter regulatory standards, and public awareness campaigns are essential to address the persistent and potentially severe impacts of heavy metal contamination, ensur- ing a more holistic approach to safeguarding environmental and public health. Healthy People 2030 includes reducing environmental health risks and improving

tion in both food and water—climate change. There are issues with climate change that impact water: flooding and drought. Increased flooding can cause arsenic that is naturally present in soil to be mobilized and carried into drinking water sources. The changes in water sources can a ect groundwater recharge and surface water availability. In areas where groundwater is a major source of drinking water, reduced recharge or increased evapora- tion can concentrate arsenic levels. We will continue to see changes to our environment due to climate change. As we face extreme heat, drought, and flooding, we need to be prepared for infrastructure changes and their impact on our food and water. Pre- paredness and response capability requires resiliency as a key element in protecting our future and the future of our next generations. As environmental health practitioners, we play a crucial role in safeguarding communities from arsenic contamination through a vari- ety of proactive measures. We need to educate communities about the risks of arsenic expo- sure, including how it can a ect health, how to reduce exposure, and how we can provide information on safe drinking water practices and the importance of testing well water. While we connect and create memories with our loved ones over the holidays, I know in the back of my mind I will be think- ing about what the future holds and what challenges the next generation will face. And at the same time, I will think about the stoic quote from Roman emperor Mar- cus Aurelius, “You have power over your mind—not outside events. Realize this and you’ll find strength.”

access to safe, clean water and food. While looking over the list of environmental health topics, there was one topic that stood out to me because it is stated as an issue that is “getting worse.” Arsenic contamination poses a signifi- cant challenge to these goals, as it continues to threaten global health, particularly in regions with high natural arsenic levels or inadequate water treatment infrastructure. Despite prog- ress in managing some environmental health risks, arsenic remains a persistent issue due to its widespread presence in groundwa- ter and soil, and its ability to accumulate in food sources such as rice. There continue to be e orts to address arsenic contamination through improved detection methods, stricter regulations, and community education. I realize that Healthy People 2030 is focused on global issues, but it is also impacting us domestically because we import fruits, veg- etables, baby food, and dietary supplements. Additionally, there is another emerging issue that is influencing arsenic contamina- We might not be able to control every aspect of our environment, but we can help our communities live more fully with clean water, food, and air.

(96>7/ • !>7,/;

So, it is our responsibility to include resil- iency in all aspects of preparedness activi- ties. We might not be able to control every aspect of our environment, but we can help our communities live more fully with clean water, food, and air by aligning our priorities to address known hazards while preparing for the risks associated with climate change.

Resources

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December 2024 • 9>;8+6 90 8?3;987/8=+6 /+6=2

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Open Access

Warmer Air Disrupts Downward Trend in Ozone Concentrations in North Central Texas, United States

Paul F. Hudak, PhD Department of Geography and the Environment, University of North Texas

Abstract Tropospheric ozone concentrations have trended downward in many U.S. cities since 2000. In Texas, however, concentra- tions and regulatory exceedances abruptly rose in Dallas-Fort Worth af- ter 2020. To explore this anomaly, the following metrics were compiled for each day from January 1, 2001–December 31, 2023: maximum daily 8-hr average (MDA8) ozone concentrations, number of days with MDA8 ozone concentrations exceeding 0.070 ppm, average nitrogen oxides (NOx, ppb), and meteorological variables. Measurements were taken at a moni- toring station in northern Dallas-Fort Worth. Levels of MDA8 ozone most strongly correlated with noon solar radiation (positive), followed by maxi- mum temperature (positive), noon relative humidity (negative), noon wind speed (negative), and average NOx (positive). After a long-term decline from 2000 to 2020, MDA8 ozone concentrations and regulatory exceed- ances sharply increased, a trend associated with increased solar radiation and air temperatures in the study area. Results suggest that warmer at- mospheric conditions associated with global warming are also increasing ground-level ozone concentrations in the study area.

FIGURE 1

Map of Study Area With County Boundaries and Monitoring Station C56

DENTON

C56 +

COLLIN

WISE

ROCKWALL

DALLAS

TARRANT

PARKER

KAUFMAN

ELLIS

JOHNSON

20 km

Texas

0 200 km N

Keywords: ozone, meteorology, emissions, Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas

Note: The plus sign (+) indicates the location of the monitoring station.

Introduction Air pollution has improved in parts of the world but remains a pervasive and challeng- ing environmental problem. Contaminated air from natural and human sources harms both plants and animals. Air pollutants also aect climate, for example, by interacting with solar radiation and outgoing heat. More- over, a warming climate can lead to higher ozone concentrations. To protect human and environmental health, the U.S. Environmen- tal Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) regulates

ozone and five other common air pollutants: particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead, and carbon monoxide. Ozone levels are considered unhealthy when the 8-hr average exceeds 0.070 ppm (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [U.S. EPA], 2024a). Despite increases in popula- tion and vehicle trac, ozone levels have trended downward in Dallas-Fort Worth in recent decades following emission reduction programs (Hudak, 2022; Sather & Caven- der, 2012; Texas Commission on Environ-

mental Quality [TCEQ], 2024). Maximum daily average 8-hr (MDA8) ozone exceed- ances, however, abruptly increased in recent years. In 2022 from January to mid-July, for example, air monitors in Texas registered double the number of unhealthy ozone days compared with 2021 and most days since 2012 (Douglas, 2022). The Dallas- Fort Worth area had 48 ozone alert days in 2022, which represents the most alerts since 2012. Reasons for this increase, however, remain unclear (Samsel, 2023). The objec-

Volume 87 • Number 5

TABLE 1

Annual Exceedances and Variable Averages for Maximum Daily 8-Hour Average (MDA8) Ozone Levels

# of MDA8 Ozone Values >0.070 ppm

Noon Solar Radiation (Langley/min)

MDA8 Ozone (ppm)

Daily Average NO x (ppb)

Maximum Temperature (°F)

Noon Relative Humidity (%)

Noon Wind Speed (mi/hr)

Year

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

45 46 35 33 54 44 24 16 22

0.046 0.046 0.045 0.043 0.047 0.048 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.042 0.047 0.045 0.045 0.043 0.042 0.041 0.042 0.050 0.041 0.040 0.043 0.045 0.044

11.0

0.872 0.918 0.892 0.832 0.896 0.938 0.844 0.932 0.889 0.900 0.954 0.918 0.876 0.878 0.843 0.951 0.928 0.891 0.862 0.888 0.873 0.959 0.932

73.7 75.4 74.8 73.4 76.1 77.8 74.2 75.4 74.3 74.5 77.3 77.5 73.8 73.8 74.6 75.4 76.1 74.6 74.3 75.1 74.3 76.8 77.8

58.4 57.9 55.8 55.3 46.5 41.6 54.1 45.3 49.6 49.6 47.3 48.7 51.7 51.0 54.7 51.5 50.7 50.5 51.7 52.1 51.1 46.0 52.9

9.5 9.4 9.8 9.3 9.2 9.8 8.9

8.3

10.7 10.2 13.4 11.4 10.9

9.7 7.8 8.4 8.1 7.3 8.9 8.1 7.2 5.8 5.7 7.4 7.2 6.2 7.4 8.3 5.9

10.0

9.5 9.2

37 28 27 10 20

11.5 10.8 10.7 11.1

9.9

9 9 8 5 5

10.2 10.7 10.2 10.0

9.8

16 15 12

10.0 10.4 10.1

Note. NO x = nitrogen oxides.

tive of this study was to identify and evalu- ate associations between MDA8 ozone levels and meteorological and emissions variables at a downwind monitoring station with a tem- poral record exceeding 20 years, including recent anomalous years, in northern Dallas- Fort Worth. Background Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO x ), vola- tile organic compounds (VOCs), and carbon monoxide (CO) from mobile and station- ary sources react with sunlight to produce ground-level ozone. Several sources emit these precursor gases; sources include motor vehicles, electrical utilities, industrial facili- ties, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents

(U.S. EPA, 2024a). Suburban and rural areas often experience potentially harmful ozone conditions, as winds carry precursor emis- sions and ozone away from sources in the urban core (Simon et al., 2015). Breathing in high ozone concentrations can impair lung development, damage lung tissue, and harm respiratory system func- tion—especially in vulnerable groups such as children, older adults, and individuals who are active outdoors (Fanucchi et al., 2006; Murphy et al., 2013). Furthermore, exposure to high ozone concentrations exacerbates other lung diseases (U.S. EPA, 2024a). In addition to detrimental eects on rub- ber, paint, and textiles, ozone can damage sensitive vegetation and ecosystems, espe-

cially during the growing season. During plant respiration, ozone enters stomata and oxidizes plant tissue, causing damage, slow- ing growth, and making plants more vulner- able to disease, insect damage, and severe weather (National Park Service, 2020; U.S. EPA, 2024a). Cities with high solar radiation (frequent clear skies), stagnant air (low to light winds), low relative humidity, and heavy emissions of precursor gases are especially prone to haz- ardous ozone concentrations, which tend to peak in mid to late afternoon or early evening (Digar et al., 2013; Sillman & Samson, 1995). Drier conditions favor ozone buildup (Cama- lier et al., 2007), when the lack of moisture causes trees to close stomata to avoid desicca-

December 2024 • 9>;8+6 90 8?3;987/8=+6 /+6=2

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tion and therefore remove less ozone (Huang et al., 2016; Kavassalis & Murphy, 2017).

FIGURE 2

Study Area The study area was the Dallas-Fort Worth region of the Texas Commission on Environ- mental Quality (TCEQ) State Implementa- tion Plan, which covers 10 counties in North Central Texas (Figure 1). In 2020, the study area had a population of approximately 7.5 million people. According to the U.S. Cen- sus Bureau (2024), the area’s most populous counties are Dallas (2.6 million), Tarrant (2.1 million), Collin (1.1 million), and Den- ton (900,000). This area has sustained sharp increases in population and vehicle miles traveled in recent decades (Texas Department of Transportation, 2024), yet MDA8 ozone levels have trended downward with reduced NO x emissions (TCEQ, 2024). Dallas-Fort Worth—the second most pop- ulous metropolitan area in the Sunbelt region of the U.S.—is prone to high ozone concen- trations, especially between May and Octo- ber (Cox & Chu, 1996; Sather & Cavender, 2012). Precursor gases from mobile anthro- pogenic sources contribute a greater amount than stationary sources to ozone levels in Dal- las-Fort Worth (Luria et al., 2008). Approxi- mately 90% of NO x in Dallas-Fort Worth comes from cars, trucks, and off-road mobile sources (TCEQ, 2024). Ozone and precursor gases also move into Dallas-Fort Worth from sources elsewhere in Texas and neighboring states (Kemball-Cook et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2009). In the summer, sustained southeast- erly winds have been shown to cause distinct clusters of high ozone concentrations at the northern perimeter of the Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan area (Hudak, 2014). Methods Daily measurements of ozone, NO x , and meteorological variables were compiled from Station C56 (at the Denton Airport South) in the TCEQ monitoring network during Janu- ary 1, 2001–December 31, 2023 (Figure 1). This station is generally downwind of the Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan core—espe- cially in the summer—and historically has produced high ozone concentrations in the study area. Several variables were compiled, includ- ing MDA8 ozone levels (ppm), daily aver- age of NO x (ppb), daily noon solar radiation

Plot of Maximum Daily 8-Hour Average (MDA8) Ozone Levels Over Time

0.12

0.11

0.1

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

1/1/2001

1/1/2005

1/1/2009

1/1/2013

1/1/2017

1/1/2021

Date (Month/Day/Year)

Note. The dashed yellow line represents the trend line.

FIGURE 3

Plot of Daily Average Nitrogen Oxides (NO x ) Levels Over Time

1/1/2001

1/1/2005

1/1/2009

1/1/2013

1/1/2017

1/1/2021

Date (Month/Day/Year)

Note. The dashed yellow line represents the trend line.

Volume 87 • Number 5

(Langley/min), daily maximum temperature (°F), daily noon relative humidity (%), and daily noon wind speed (mi/hr). Descriptive statistics, scatterplots, rank correlations, and MDA8 exceedances of 0.070 ppm were com- puted to evaluate the data. Rank correlations were used because the data were non-nor- mally distributed. Results and Discussion Overall, the annual number and annual average of MDA8 ozone concentrations above 0.070 ppm both trended downward, with some notable anomalies (Table 1). For example, 2005, 2011, and 2021–2023 had relatively high numbers of exceedances and annual MDA8 averages considering the over- all temporal trend (Table 1). Further, 2005 and 2011 had relatively high solar radiation, high air temperature, and low relative humid- ity (Table 1). Moreover, 2005 had relatively high NO x and low wind speed, which also tended to produce higher ozone concentra- tions (Table 1). Similarly, 2021–2023 had rel- atively high solar radiation and temperature (Table 1). In contrast, 2010 and 2014 had fewer MDA8 ozone exceedances and lower annual MDA8 averages, coinciding with lower solar radiation, lower temperature, and (for 2014) higher wind speed (Table 1). Daily time series show variable concentra- tions at a finer temporal scale (Figures 2–7). Overall, MDA8 ozone concentrations trended downward ( p < .01) but with strong seasonal- ity or tendency for higher concentrations in summer months (Figure 2). Relatively large numbers of exceedances occurred early in the time series. Thereafter, concentrations tended to decline overall, with a clear upward depar- ture from that trend late in the data record (Figure 2). Overall decreasing MDA8 ozone concen- trations—attributed to improved emissions control technology—are consistent with prior studies in the U.S. (Simon et al., 2015). In addition to MDA8 ozone concentrations, both daily average NO x (Figure 3) and noon rela- tive humidity (Figure 6) trended significantly downward ( p < .01). Despite sharp increases in population and vehicle miles traveled in the study area, NO x concentrations decreased from 2001–2023. This study also found that NO x concentrations tended to be higher in winter months, whereas relative humidity showed less seasonality but was somewhat

FIGURE 4

Plot of Noon Solar Radiation Over Time

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

1/1/2001

1/1/2005

1/1/2009

1/1/2013

1/1/2017

1/1/2021

Date (Month/Day/Year)

Note. The dashed yellow line represents the trend line

FIGURE 5

Plot of Maximum Daily Temperature Over Time

110

100

1/1/2001

1/1/2005

1/1/2009

1/1/2013

1/1/2017

1/1/2021

Date (Month/Day/Year)

Note. The dashed yellow line represents the trend line.

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lower in summer months (Figure 6). Further, NO x emissions in Texas decreased from 1,937 thousand tons in 2000 to 881 thousand tons in 2020; over that same period, VOC emis- sions increased from 1,341 thousand tons to 1,645 thousand tons (U.S. EPA, 2024b). These findings suggest that slower progress toward controlling VOC emissions could be limiting ozone reductions. In contrast, data from the daily time series showed significant upward trends for noon solar radiation ( p < .05; Figure 4), maximum temperature ( p < .01; Figure 5), and noon wind speed ( p < .01; Figure 7). Both solar radiation and temperature showed strong seasonality, with higher values in summer months and especially high values late in the data record. While average wind speed trended downward, stronger winds at the upper part of the distribution occurred early in the time series (Figure 7). Overall, wind speed tended toward slightly higher values in the winter months. MDA8 ozone significantly correlated ( p < .01) with each variable studied, from strongest to weakest (correlation coefficient in paren- theses): noon solar radiation (+0.712), maxi- mum temperature (+0.681), noon relative humidity (-0.472), noon wind speed (-0.102), and average NO x (+0.060). Strong associa- tions among MDA8 ozone levels, maximum temperature, and relative humidity were also observed in previous studies. Using data from 2000 to 2016 for the contiguous U.S., Wells et al. (2021) found that midday relative humid- ity and daily maximum temperature were the most important meteorological predictors of MDA8 ozone levels. Previously, Camalier et al. (2007) found strong associations between MDA8 ozone levels, relative humidity, and temperature in a study of 39 urban areas of the Eastern U.S. using data collected between 1997 and 2005. Further, Sadeghi et al. (2022) used a convolutional neural network to evalu- ate hourly ozone concentrations between 2000 and 2019, concluding that tempera- ture and specific humidity contributed most to MDA8 ozone levels over Dallas, and solar radiation strongly affected MDA8 variation over West Texas. Conclusion The objective of this study was to compile and evaluate long-term trends in ground- level ozone concentrations, meteorologi-

FIGURE 6

Plot of Noon Relative Humidity Over Time

100

1/1/2001

1/1/2005

1/1/2009

1/1/2013

1/1/2017

1/1/2021

Date (Month/Day/Year)

Note. The dashed yellow line represents the trend line.

FIGURE 7

Plot of Noon Wind Speed Over Time

1/1/2001

1/1/2005

1/1/2009

1/1/2013

1/1/2017

1/1/2021

Date (Month/Day/Year)

Note. The dashed yellow line represents the trend line.

Volume 87 • Number 5

cal variables, and NO x emissions at a pre- dominantly downwind monitoring station at the northern edge of Dallas-Fort Worth. This study analyzed daily data from this sta- tion from 2001 to 2023. Study results indi- cate an overall downward trend for MDA8 ozone levels, disrupted by sharp increases in recent years. In order of strength, noon

solar radiation, maximum temperature, noon relative humidity, noon wind speed, and average NO x concentration significantly correlated with MDA8 ozone levels. Further, atmospheric warming contributed to higher MDA8 ozone concentrations and regulatory exceedances in recent years. From a policy standpoint, measures that offset global

warming can also mitigate ozone buildup in urban complexes.

Corresponding Author: Paul F. Hudak, Department of Geography and the Environ- ment, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle #305279, Denton, TX 76203-5017. Email: paul.hudak@unt.edu

References

Camalier, L., Cox, W., & Dolwick, P. (2007). The eects of meteo- rology on ozone in urban areas and their use in assessing ozone trends. Atmospheric Environment , 41 (33), 7127–7137. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.04.061 Cox, W.M., & Chu, S.-H. (1996). Assessment of interannual ozone variation in urban areas from a climatological perspec- tive. Atmospheric Environment , 30 (14), 2615–2625. https://doi. org/10.1016/1352-2310(95)00346-0 Digar, A., Cohan, D.S., Xiao, X., Foley, K.M., Koo, B., & Yarwood, G. (2013). Constraining ozone-precursor responsiveness using ambi- ent measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres , 118 (2), 1005–1019. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012JD018100 Douglas, E. (2022, July 14). Smog levels in Texas surge dur- ing heat wave, bringing worst summer air quality in a decade. The Texas Tribune . https://www.texastribune.org/2022/07/14/ texas-summer-smog-ozone-pollution/ Fanucchi, M.V., Plopper, C.G., Evans, M.J., Hyde, D.M., Van Winkle, L.S., Gershwin, L.J., & Schelegle, E.S. (2006). Cyclic exposure to ozone alters distal airway development in infant rhesus mon- keys. American Journal of Physiology: Lung Cellular and Molecu- lar Physiology , 291 (4), L644–L650. https://doi.org/10.1152/ ajplung.00027.2006 Huang, L., McDonald-Buller, E.C., McGaughey, G., Kimura, Y., & Allen, D.T. (2016). The impact of drought on ozone dry deposi- tion over eastern Texas. Atmospheric Environment , 127 , 176–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.12.022 Hudak, P.F. (2014). Spatial pattern of ground-level ozone concentra- tion in Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan area. International Journal of Environmental Research , 8 (4), 897–902. Hudak, P.F. (2022). Long-term tropospheric ozone concentrations and associated meteorological and emissions variables at a subur- ban monitoring station in Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas. Environmen- tal Quality Management , 32 (2), 309–316. https://doi.org/10.1002/ tqem.21845 Kavassalis, S.C., & Murphy, J.G. (2017). Understanding ozone- meteorology correlations: A role for dry deposition. Geo- physical Research Letters , 44 (6), 2922–2931. https://doi. org/10.1002/2016GL071791 Kemball-Cook, S., Parrish, D., Ryerson, T., Nopmongcol, U., John- son, J., Tai, E., & Yarwood, G. (2009). Contributions of regional transport and local sources to ozone exceedances in Houston and Dallas: Comparison of results from a photochemical grid

model to aircraft and surface measurements. Journal of Geophysi- cal Research: Atmospheres , 114 (D7), Article D00F02. https://doi. org/10.1029/2008JD010248 Kim, S., Byun, D.W., & Cohan, D. (2009). Contributions of inter- and intra-state emissions to ozone over Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas. Civil Engineering and Environmental Systems , 26 (1), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/10286600802005364 Luria, M., Valente, R.J., Bairai, S., Parkhurst, W.J., & Tanner, R.L. (2008). Airborne study of ozone formation over Dallas, Texas. Atmospheric Environment , 42 (29), 6951–6958. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.04.057 Murphy, S.R., Schelegle, E.S., Miller, L.A., Hyde, D.M., & Van Win- kle, L.S. (2013). Ozone exposure alters serotonin and serotonin receptor expression in the developing lung. Toxicological Sciences , 134 (1), 168–179. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kft090 National Park Service. (2020). Ozone eects on plants . https://www. nps.gov/subjects/air/nature-ozone.htm Sadeghi, B., Ghahremanloo, M., Mousavinezhad, S., Lops, Y., Pouy- aei, A., & Choi, Y. (2022). Contributions of meteorology to ozone variations: Application of deep learning and the Kolmogorov-Zur- benko filter. Environmental Pollution , 310 , Article 119863. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119863 Samsel, H. (2023, October 26). North Texas ozone alerts hit highest number in a decade. Are millions in fines on the hori- zon? KERA News . https://www.keranews.org/environment- nature/2023-10-26/north-texas-ozone-alerts-hit-highest-number- in-a-decade-are-millions-in-fines-on-the-horizon Sather, M.E., & Cavender, K. (2012). Update of long-term trends analysis of ambient 8-hour ozone and precursor monitoring data in the South Central U.S.; Encouraging news. Journal of Envi- ronmental Monitoring , 14 (2), 666–676. https://doi.org/10.1039/ c2em10862c Sillman, S., & Samson, P.J. (1995). Impact of temperature on oxi- dant photochemistry in urban, polluted rural and remote envi- ronments. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres , 100 (D6), 11497–11508. https://doi.org/10.1029/94JD02146 Simon, H., Re, A., Wells, B., Xing, J., & Frank, N. (2015). Ozone trends across the United States over a period of decreasing NO x and VOC emissions. Environmental Science & Technology , 49 (1), 186–195. https://doi.org/10.1021/es504514z

continued on page 14

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References continued from page 13

Texas Commission on Environmental Quality. (2024). Air quality . https://www.tceq.texas.gov/airquality Texas Department of Transportation. (2024). Roadway inventory . https://www.txdot.gov/inside-txdot/division/transportation-plan ning/roadway-inventory.html U.S. Census Bureau. (2024). Explore census data . https://data.census. gov/cedsci/ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2024a). Ground-level ozone pollution . https://www.epa.gov/ground-level-ozone-pollution

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2024b). Air pollutant emis- sions trends data . https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/ air-pollutant-emissions-trends-data Wells, B., Dolwick, P., Eder, B., Evangelista, M., Foley, K., Mannshardt, E., Misenis, C., & Weishampel, A. (2021). Improved estimation of trends in U.S. ozone concentrations adjusted for interannual variability in meteorological conditions. Atmospheric Environment , 248 , Article 118234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. atmosenv.2021.118234

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JEH QUIZ

Warmer Air Disrupts Downward Trend in Ozone Concentrations in North Central Texas, United States FEATURED ARTICLE QUIZ #3

A vailable to those with an active National Environmental Health Association (NEHA) membership, the JEH Quiz is offered six times per calendar year and is an easily accessible way to earn continuing education (CE) contact hours toward maintaining a NEHA credential. Each quiz is worth 1.0 CE. Completing quizzes is now based on the honor system and should be self-reported by the credential holder. Quizzes published only during your current credential cycle are eligible for CE credit. Please keep a copy of each completed quiz for your records. CE credit will post to your account within 3 business days. Paper or electronic quiz submissions will no longer be collected by NEHA staff. INSTRUCTIONS TO SELF-REPORT A JEH QUIZ FOR CE CREDIT 1. Read the featured article and select the correct answer to each JEH Quiz question. 2. Log in to your MyNEHA account at https://neha.users.membersuite.com/ home. 3. Click on Credentials located at the top of the page. 4. Select Report CEs from the drop-down menu. 5. Enter the date you finished the quiz in the Date Attended field. 6. Enter 1.0 in the Length of Course in Hours field. 7. In the Description field, enter the activity as “ JEH Quiz #, Month Year” (e.g., JEH Quiz 3, December 2024). 8. Click the Create button.

 Quiz effective date: December 1, 2024 | Quiz deadline: March 1, 2025

of MDA8 ozone concentrations above 0.070 ppm both a. trended downward. b. remained level. c. trended upward. 8. The following years had relatively high numbers of exceedances and annual MDA8 averages considering the overall temporal trend:

1. To protect human and environmental health from air pollutants, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulates ozone and a. particulate matter and carbon monoxide. b. sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. c. lead. d. a and b. e. all of the above. 2. Ozone levels are considered unhealthy when the 8-hr average exceeds a. 0.007 ppm. b. 0.070 ppm. c. 0.700 ppm. d. 7.000 ppm. 3. The Dallas-Fort Worth area had 48 ozone alert days in 2022, which represents the most alerts since a. 2009. b. 2010. c. 2011. d. 2012. 4. The objective of this study was to identify and evaluate associations between maximum daily average 8-hr (MDA8) ozone levels and meteorological and emissions variables in North Central Texas. a. True. b. False. 5. Cities with __ are especially prone to hazardous ozone concentrations. a. stagnant air and low relative humidity b. high solar radiation c. heavy emissions of precursor gases d. b and c e. all of the above 6. Approximately __ of nitrogen oxides (NO x ) in Dallas-Fort Worth comes from cars, trucks, and off-road mobile sources. a. 60% b. 70% c. 80% d. 90% 7. Of the measurements analyzed from January 1, 2001–December 31, 2023, the annual number and annual average

a. 2005. b. 2011. c. 2021–2023. d. all of the above. e. none of the above. 9. __ had fewer MDA8 ozone

exceedances and lower annual MDA8 averages, which coincided with lower solar radiation and lower temperature measurements.

a. 2005 and 2011 b. 2005 and 2014 c. 2010 and 2011 d. 2010 and 2014 10. This study also found that NO x

concentrations tended to be higher in __ months. a. winter b. spring c. summer d. fall 11. In this study, the MDA8 ozone levels significantly correlated the strongest with a. average NO x . b. maximum temperature. c. noon solar radiation. d. noon wind speed. e. noon relative humidity. 12. In this study, the MDA8 ozone levels significantly correlated the weakest with a. average NO x . b. maximum temperature. c. noon solar radiation. d. noon wind speed. e. noon relative humidity.

JEH Quiz #1 Answers July/August 2024

1. c 2. a 3. e

4. a 5. b 6. c

7. a 8. c 9. b

10. b 11. a 12. b

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Open Access

 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Solid Waste Management in the Republic of Benin: The Case of Five Municipalities in Grand Nokoué

Noelie M.A. Guezo, MPH UNICEF Tunde M. Akinmoladun, PhD, DAAS, FRSPH Embry Riddle Aeronautical University

Zurbrugg (2003) summed up the chal- lenges of solid waste management in munici- palities in low- and middle-income countries as inadequate service coverage, operational ineciencies in services, limited use of recy- cling activities, inadequate disposal landfills, and inadequate management of hazardous and healthcare waste. Another challenge in implementing solid waste management is the absence of con- sistent and reliable data. This situation is prevalent in many countries, and Benin and other West African nations are no exception (Miezah et al., 2015). In most of these coun- tries, the majority of waste is disposed of in unregulated dumps or is openly burned, which results in ecological and human health consequences. Purpose The purpose of our article is to address the various ways solid waste is managed in the Republic of Benin, particularly in the metropolis of Grand Nokoué, which includes the country’s five largest cities of Cotonou, Abomey-Calavi, Porto-Novo, Sèmè-Kpodji, and Ouidah. By sharing the experience with the rest of the world, we aim to provide prag- matic and sustainable recommendations. Findings In most West African countries such as Benin, solid waste management is a major concern. According to the World Bank Group (2024), the waste generated in Benin is esti- mated at 197 kg per capita annually, with the projection for 2025 being 274 kg per capita annually. Overall, solid waste generated in Benin contains approximately 37% organic waste and 15% plastic waste. Estimates by the Benin Ministry of Environment suggest that the cities within Grand Nokoué, where

,<=;+-= Our article examined the state of solid waste management in five major cities of the Republic of Benin in West Africa. For each major city, we explored the current practices, types of waste, volumes, sources, and disposal methods. Our recommendations can guide adequate and safe solid waste management practices in other low- and middle-income countries in the West African region and elsewhere. Keywords: solid waste management, recycling, resource conservation, environmental protection, human health, personal protective equipment

Introduction According to Wang (2019), solid waste is garbage—the discarded, less useful part of the material generated by everyday human activities, including household, agricultural, industrial, or commercial activities. Solid waste encompasses any discarded, aban- doned, incinerated, buried, or recycled mate- rials. As such, all human activities produce solid waste in one way or another. The term solid waste management refers to the process of collecting and treating solid waste to limit its eects on the environment and the health and well-being of humans. Globally, eective solid waste management is a major challenge as a resource potential (Conserve Energy Future, 2024). If solid waste management is fully developed with state-of-the-art technology and adequate financing, it could lead to more job cre- ation for local communities and residents. Solid waste, when poorly managed, poses serious environmental pollution problems with accompanying implications for human health. Additionally, urbanization and indus- trialization make solid waste management a daunting task for municipalities—one that becomes more complex as the pace of urban-

ization increases. This problem is particularly acute in the resource-poor countries of Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, where the struggle to meet basic survival needs often takes priority over environmental and health concerns. In September 2015, the United Nations Member States adopted the 17 Sustain- able Development Goals as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030. Goal 11 aims to reduce the adverse environmental impact of cit- ies and directs special attention to air qual- ity and waste management issues. Goal 12 aims to substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse (United Nations, 2015). Moreover, solid waste management is impor- tant for the sustainable development of societ- ies in both low- and middle-income countries and high-income countries. Solid waste man- agement constitutes a great challenge that low- and middle-income countries are facing due to the rapid growth of their cities and industries. According to Wang (2019), waste management in the U.S. is regulated by the U.S. Environmen- tal Protection Agency under the Resource Con- servation and Recovery Act (RCRA).

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