cidences of social problems seen in AN com- munities. Alcohol abuse, in the form of regular to sporadic binge drinking, has increased ac- cidents and violence and is linked to suicide, job instability, and domestic abuse (Bell et al., 2010). An example of the detrimental impacts of climate change on mental health is the shortening period for subsistence seal hunting in northwestern Native Alaska. This change can lead to feelings of loss and grief that when built on longer-term feelings of discon- nect, can contribute to mental and behavioral health issues such as depression, suicide, and substance abuse (Berner & Furgal, 2005). Ag- atha Napoleon describes the impact of climate change on their community’s mental health: “We’re all getting frustrated and it does not do a community good at all when everybody is getting frustrated. It’s not a healthy commu- nity” (A. Chang, personal communication, July 3, 2023). Resiliency and Adaptation ANs have a long history of resiliency and adaptation to the harsh conditions and the dynamic climate and ecological shifts of Alaska (Bennett et al., 2014; Cook Inlet- keeper, 2020). For centuries, their strong cultural ties—bolstered by traditional sub- sistence harvesting and resource sharing between networks of individuals and com- munities—have been key to their resil- ience and ability to adapt. An example is the decrease in the caribou population and increase in the moose population that occurred over one hundred years ago in interior Alaska. Their ability to shift from caribou to moose for subsistence hunting ensured their survival (Kofinas et al., 2010). Another important factor in the resiliency and adaptive abilities of ANs was a nomadic lifestyle that enabled communities to move freely to dierent regions where subsistence resources were abundant through changing seasons (Kofinas et al., 2010). The importance of traditional values and knowledge for resiliency and adaptation is en- compassed in this quote from an AN resident: Even as the world around us changes, which it always has in one way or an- other, knowledge is adapted and the les- sons, skills, and values of the past still matter and still provide wise guidance for anyone living the Arctic way of life. (Gearhead et al., 2017)
Example of Food Sovereignty in North Slope Borough, Alaska
In the northernmost borough of Alaska and within the Arctic Circle, the North Slope Borough is home to approximately 7,000 people, with the majority of the population being Iñupiat, meaning “real or genuine person” (Alaska Native Language Center, n.d.). The borough includes 89,000 mi 2 of land that stretches from the Arctic Ocean coastline to the foothills of the Brooks Range. The harvest of marine and land mammals, fish, and migratory birds are a way of life for the Iñupiat and their culture, identity, and livelihood are intertwined with hunting (Brower & Hepa, 2010). The bowhead whale and caribou are the most important re- sources for the Iñupiat. As a cultural touchpoint for generations, the harvest of bowhead whales involves much of the community. Herman Ahsoak, a whaling captain from Utq- iagvik, expressed that “our people have been whaling for hundreds of years. It is very important to our community. The whale provides us with daily food. We use every part of the whale in some way” (G. Bare, personal communication, February 3, 2023). At an early age, children are taught the skills needed to harvest bowhead whales that include crafting the umiaq (the traditional skin boat) and traversing dangerous sea ice to whaling camps (Brower & Hepa, 2010). Maintaining food sovereignty allows the Iñupiat to pass down longstanding traditions and culture to future generations and also provides the residents with food that is needed for survival and to achieve food secu- rity. The high cost of living in rural Alaskan communities, with limited and expensive imported items such as bread and milk, make it unsustainable to rely on these items for daily sustenance (Brower & Hepa, 2010).
Institutional barriers, funding limitations, and the shift to a non-nomadic lifestyle hin- der AN resilience and adaptation to new ecological threats (Kofinas et al., 2010). In- stitutional barriers like the 1971 Alaska Na- tive Claim Settlement Act and historical U.S. Fish and Wildlife fishing, hunting, and land management regulations neglect the needs
of Indigenous Peoples and limit their ability to respond to rapid ecological changes (Behe et al., 2020; Rogerson, 2022). Successful re- silience and adaptation to climate change requires co-management between ANs and state and federal governments instead of the current limited cooperative agreements. Co- management would allow ANs to collaborate
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December 2023 • Journal of Environmental Health
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