ADVANCEMENT OF THE PRACTICE
their traditional economy, social structures, and environment (National Research Coun- cil, 2003).
state and are projected to cost from $3.3 to $6.7 billion to address (Gray et al., 2018). Climate change in Alaska is modifying Arc- tic marine ecosystems, decreasing the average annual sea ice coverage, reducing the size of glaciers, and degrading permafrost. The ma- rine ecosystem in Alaska is a major part of the economy and a source of subsistence har- vests. The decreasing average Arctic sea ice coverage and increasing ocean acidity have large-scale impacts on marine ecosystems and their inhabitants, including the distribu- tion of sea life and food sources. The increasing temperatures have also physically and biologically altered Alaska’s land. The impact on the land includes per- mafrost degradation, increasing coastal ero- sion, and changing vegetation due to inten- sifying wildfires and elevated temperatures (Chapin et al., 2014). Thawing permafrost has profound eects on Arctic Alaska in- cluding physical impacts that compromise important infrastructure such as building and pipeline foundations, road and power lines, and wastewater containment. The increasing risk of larger and more frequent wildfires poses a direct risk to human health by elevating exposure to smoke and particu- late matter (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2021). Shrinking gla- ciers are expected to continue and have been linked as one of the largest contributors to global sea level rise. Glacial water is rich with organic compounds that are vital to marine life and these changes impact Alas- kan fisheries (Climate Adaptation Science Centers, n.d.). Alaska Natives For hundreds of generations, ANs have passed down their knowledge, stories, and experiences. Their sacred connections between humans and the environment are nurtured through all the pieces found within an ecosystem, including the essence, the cycles, and throughout the whole system. In their culture, science meant that they “under- stood and lived with, not tried to mold, the environment around us” (Thomson, 2019). It is impossible to unweave ANs from their environment or ignore the profound impacts that climate change is having on their very existence. The environment is key to not only their physical existence but also their spiri- tual and cultural way of life.
Climate Change Impacts on Alaska Natives
Impact on Food Sovereignty Climate change is a major concern for AN food sovereignty eorts to preserve and sup- port traditional practices while also conserv- ing the environment and restoring biodi- versity (Inuit Circumpolar Council Alaska, 2020a). The AN connection to their envi- ronment and animals extends beyond daily sustenance. Herman Ahsoak, a whaling cap- tain from Utqiavik, describes the practice of whaling harvesting as, “We do not pick the whale, the whale picks us. It gives itself to the people ” (G. Bare, personal communication, February 3, 2023). According to the Inuit food security conceptual framework, food sovereignty and food security are intimately connected, with food sovereignty being a necessity to maintain food security (Inuit Circumpolar Council Alaska, 2020b). Com- mon concepts such as resource management and subsistence do not capture the multifac- eted dimensions of food security for ANs. As defined by the Inuit, food security is: The natural right of all Inuit to be part of the ecosystem.…It allows for all Inuit to obtain, process, store, and consume enough of healthy, nutritious, and pre- ferred food—foods Inuit physically and spiritually crave and need from the land, air, and water. (Inuit Circumpolar Coun- cil Alaska, 2020b) Food sovereignty as defined by the Inuit is: The right of all Inuit to define their own hunting, gathering, fishing, land, and water policies; the right to define what is sustainably, socially, economically, and culturally appropriate for the distri- bution of food and to maintain ecologi- cal health. (Inuit Circumpolar Council Alaska, 2020b) Traditional subsistence foods consumed by ANs vary depending on their location. Common subsistence sea and land animals include various species of fish (e.g., salmon, herring, pike, whitefish, halibut), whale, caribou, moose, elk, bear, rabbit, lynx, seal, walrus, geese, beaver, shrimp, crab, various eggs, and more. Commonly consumed sub-
Collins J. Fleming, Sr. shared his insight on the importance of subsistence hunting and fishing.
Alaska is home to 229 tribes that con- sist of 5 groups of AN people with 11 cul- tures, 20 languages, and 300 dierent dia- lects (Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, 2023; Travel Alaska, 2023). Of the 730,000 Alaskan residents, 15% are ANs. There are five groups of ANs, identi- fied by region. These regions include the Arctic (Iñupiat and Yup’ik), Southcentral and Interior Alaska (Athabascan), South- west Alaska (Central Yup’ik and Cup’ik, Unangax̂ and Sugpiaq), and the Inside Pas- sage (Eyak, Haida, Tsimshian, and Tlingit; Travel Alaska, 2023). Many ANs live in villages along the coast- line and rivers and depend on subsistence hunting and harvesting for survival as they have done for thousands of years. Reliance on the land and environment for food, shelter, and medicine—as well as close relationships between their social, mental, spiritual, and cultural well-being with nature—make ANs more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Bennett et al., 2014). Agatha Napo- leon, councilmember of the Native Village of Paimiut, describes the impact of climate change on their village as “not just breaking down of culture, it’s the breakdown of our little society” (A. Chang, personal communi- cation, July 3, 2023). More recently, AN communities in the Arctic have become reliant on the oil and gas industry to subsidize essential services and infrastructure such as running water, flushing toilets, and modern medical and school facilities that could otherwise not be possible without these funds. While the oil and gas industry has brought positive consequences to AN communities, the envi- ronmental impact of this industry has also brought negative consequences that aect
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