ADVANCEMENT OF THE PRACTICE
used to store subsistence food) thawing (U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit, n.d.). Food thaw- ing can lead to contamination, foodborne ill- ness, and dependence on store-bought foods that are more expensive, less healthy, and nontraditional (U.S. Climate Resilience Tool- kit, n.d.). Decreasing access to traditional and healthy foods results in increased reli- ance on processed foods, ultimately aecting the prevalence of diabetes, obesity, and other metabolic syndromes or chronic diseases (Tribal Public and Environmental Health Think Tank, 2018). Climate change has amplified wildfire intensity and frequency due to a combination of extreme heat and drought. These condi- tions give rise to wildfires that are dicult to fight, leading to increased losses and esca- lating costs (National Wildlife Federation, 2011). In 2022, 68,988 wildfires burned 7.6 million acres of land in the U.S., and more than 40% of those wildfires were in Alaska (Congressional Research Service, 2023). Wildfire smoke caused poor air quality throughout the U.S., aected air travel, and caused damage to the aected communities (Timsit & Livingston, 2023). Moreover, wild- fires threaten traditional ceremonies and food availability for AI/AN communities. Members of the Klamath nations in Chiloquin, Oregon, are concerned about their ancestral territory and way of life and were unable to engage in ceremonies or hunt in 2020 due to wildfires (Flaccus & Howard, 2021). A study conducted using data from the 2000 U.S. Census found that slightly more than 3% of the total U.S. population live in high flood-risk areas as defined by the Fed- eral Emergency Management Agency (n.d.). Floods are associated with the second deadli- est of all weather-related hazards in the U.S., accounting for approximately 98 deaths per year (CDC, 2024b). Because 40% of federally recognized tribes live in Alaska, a large pro- portion of AI/AN people could be aected by flooding related to coastal erosion in Alaska (U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit, n.d.). Drought and subsequent dry conditions can increase the probability of wildfires, dust storms, extreme heat, and reduced water qual- ity and quantity (CDC, 2024b). Many AI/AN nations honor water as a foundation of their subsistence, treaty rights, way of life, and economies (National Wildlife Federation, 2011). Alternately, drought poses a threat to
tribal communities as water shortages become more frequent and severe. Drought aects agricultural production and sources of food, and water sources can be the root of conflicts between AI/AN nations and surrounding com- munities (Gilio-Whitaker, 2019). Furthermore, water and rain scarcity aect corn yields, drive sheep and wildlife to forage farther for water and food, and in some cases force AI/AN families to rely on nontraditional sources of drinking water (Hunt et al., 2021). Droughts can increase wildfire frequency and intensity, which aects homes, safety, medici- nal and culturally important species, and cultural sites in AI/AN communities (U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit, n.d.). Environmental Health Hazards We define environmental health hazards as substances that can cause adverse health eects, which include natural or human- made hazards such as toxic waste, radiation, pesticides, and chemicals. Historically, the U.S. government has taken many years to respond to and address community health concerns (Manjeshwar, 2021). The failure of the U.S. government to uphold treaty rights for Native lands has led to a history of envi- ronmental contamination for many AI/AN communities (Lewis et al., 2017). Indigenous Peoples are disproportionately impacted by industry and natural resource extraction (Scheidel et al., 2023). Growth of extrac- tive industries, accumulation and disposal of wastes, and residential and commercial developments have created exposure risks to hazardous substances (U.S. EPA, 1989). Envi- ronmental health hazards can be ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through dierent medi- ums such as the soil, water, and air. Uranium mining is associated with a wide range of human health risks, including respi- ratory disease, kidney disease, hypertension, and an increase in developing comorbidities (Lewis et al., 2017; National Research Coun- cil, 2012). In the Southwestern U.S., AI/AN communities are exposed to uranium due to the proximity of mining sites to their lands (Hoover et al., 2012). After approximately 50 years of uranium mining on Navajo lands, the expended mines were abandoned. In some cases, radioactive mine tailings remain exposed, becoming airborne and contami- nating nearby water sources and ecosystems (Gilio-Whitaker, 2019).
In one Navajo cohort study, 27% of par- ticipants had high levels of uranium in their urine compared with 5% of the U.S. population (Morales, 2016). In Washing- ton, two open-pit uranium mines remain on the Spokane Indian Reservation and are associated with increased cancer rates in nearby communities (Gilio-Whitaker, 2019). The Columbia River on the Hanford Nuclear Reservation in Washington was contaminated by the disposal of radioac- tive materials from uranium processed for the nuclear weapons industry from 1943– 1987. According to Gilio-Whitaker (2019), the Yakama Nation and surrounding com- munities have elevated rates of cancer and rare birth defects that might be associated with the legacy of uranium tailings. The Yakama Nation is bordered on three sides by Superfund sites, areas designated by the U.S. government as the most contaminated and polluted locations in the country. The Yakama people rely heavily on fish from an area called Portland Harbor, which is a Superfund site. The harbor is heavily con- taminated by petroleum, pesticides, and other toxic chemicals at levels dangerous to human health, forcing the Yakama people to restructure their way of life. For more than 30 years, the Yakama Nation has advocated for the cleanup of Portland Harbor, with lit- tle success (Manjeshwar, 2021). Coal is a nonrenewable energy source that is widely used in combustion to generate electricity. Burning coal emits large amounts of hazardous substances into the atmosphere. Exposure to coal mine dust predominantly aects coal workers and causes health issues including a spectrum of respiratory dis- eases, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lung cancer (Go & Cohen, 2020). Similar to their exposure to uranium, AI/AN communities are exposed to environ- mental contaminants because of the proxim- ity of coal-fired power plants to their lands (Hoover et al., 2012). Massive coal deposits and the largest coal strip mine in the U.S. border Northern Cheyenne land in Montana, causing poor air quality, respiratory diseases, and low birth rates (Gilio-Whitaker, 2019). A total of four coal-fired power plants are located adjacent to Northern Cheyenne tribal land. The ground and surface waters on the Hoopa Valley Reservation in California are contaminated with acid drainage from mines,
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Volume 87 • Number 10
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